Working session No. 28: Global and regional value chains in Africa - determining strategic approaches to leverage new trade opportunities for the continent

This session focused on harnessing trade for development, looking at the problems faced by Africa regarding poor infrastructure, energy sources, telecommunications, business training and financial services. It also discussed new patterns of trade and global value chains (GVCs), the ways in which multinational companies are dividing their operations across the globe, and how Africa can tap into new developments.

The panellists said that GVCs are very important for development. In order to join GVCs, countries should approach transnational companies to facilitate linkages for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) within global markets. It is the responsibility of governments to educate their workers as a means of increasing participation in GVCs. This requires investment in key sectors.

The panel said that GVCs only provide substantial gains when certain preconditions are met regarding levels of technology, services, workforce training and institutional development. It can be risky for developing countries to participate in GVCs in the absence of these preconditions as this means entering GVCs at the lowest level. There needs to be a holistic approach within a country to bring everyone together so that emerging issues can be discussed as value chains are not linear connections – many actors and factors affect GVCs.

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Working session No. 29: Fostering skills and jobs through trade liberalization in developing economies

The panel said that while trade matters to everyone, it is skills development that can allow people to fully take advantage of the opportunities made available by trade. The discussion focused on how trade and skills development have a two-way relationship and reinforce each other.

The relationship between trade and jobs is complicated and multi-faceted, said the panel. While empirical evidence needs improvement, it is perhaps safe to conclude that trade creates jobs. It is, however, the stability and quality of the employment created that needs closer evaluation. Surveys reveal that enterprises complain about the lack of available skilled labour. At the same time, there is a high level of unemployment among skilled youth as well as a high rate of turnover. The situation is even more acute in export-related jobs.

The panellists cited a few explanations for this. First, there is a growing disconnect between the human resources that the world of education is producing and what the labour market needs. Secondly, the spread of technology through global value chains has put a premium on languages and certain core skills which are not always provided by academic institutions. Thirdly, there is a low uptake of work due to poor working conditions and low job satisfaction.

Therefore, there are instances where what appears to be a skills gap is in reality a cry for investment in work infrastructure. Where a true skills gap exists, there is a need to bring all the parties together to define the curricula. The International Trade Centre described how its activities allow small and medium-sized enterprises to develop marketing and branding skills, which in turn boost trade and their competitiveness. The panellists also referred to cases such as India, where there is a surplus of low and high-skilled workers but a deficit of middle-skilled workers. They also noted that labour market policies are not the only contributors to the skills gap. In conclusion, the panel said that trade openness needs complementary policies to realize the benefits that openness brings.

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Working session No. 30: Trade, Innovation and Jobs: Dealing with Disruption

Douglas Lippoldt from HSBC focused on tariffs and non-tariff barriers to the international trade in goods. He said that the major potential for development can be found in demographic change, education, health, rule of law, corporate governance, monetary and government policies, and democracy. Demographic change is especially important for the workforce of emerging markets. Since many emerging economies show demographic "headwinds", a substantial amount of productive labour will enter the economy up to 2050.

Mr Lippoldt said that another important factor for development is the technological difference between developed and developing markets. This technological gap provides substantial economic potential. Given the workforce and technological gaps in emerging markets, these countries will see a rise in growth until 2050. Thus, there will be a lot more demand for South-South trade, marking a shift in demand for goods and labour and a push for innovation. This change in development creates a need for adjustment in terms of labour supply, skills and productivity. These far-reaching global shifts provide opportunities and challenges. Thus adjustments, especially within labour and management, are necessary. In addition, governments need to be prepared for this. While there are currently insufficient physical resources available to meet today's levels of consumption, a more balanced economy of scale towards efficiency is necessary to make a sustainable future possible.

José M. Salazar-Xirinachs from the International Labour Organization (ILO) outlined the ILO's findings regarding trade liberalization and employment. The contemporary global shifts towards emerging markets require a technological change as well as a change in labour conditions since what is currently happening can be regarded as a "shock".

Mr Salazar-Xirinachs posed a number of questions. Firstly, does trade liberalization create employment? He said that there is no simple answer to this as the impact on employment differs widely across countries and depends on country-specific conditions. Secondly, what is the level of job creation in the exporting sector? He said that job creation in this sector for developing countries is disappointing. Successful exporters have a high level of productivity but they may grow without net job creation. Thirdly, what is the net job creation effect in developing countries? He said that many displaced workers do not move into the exporting sector and instead end up in lower-paid services occupations. Fourthly, how does trade liberalization affect the informal economy? He said that it is a two-way relationship. Trade reforms may have an effect on the size and performance of the informal economy but no relationship has been found in several studies.

Fifthly, how does trade liberalization affect job quality and labour standards? Mr Salazar-Xirinachs said that working conditions have been the focus of attention in many countries regarding good governance and due diligence in the management of supply chains. Nowadays, labour conditions are implemented in many bilateral trade agreements. Although there are exceptions, most evidence does not support the argument that countries experience declining labour standards as a result of trade agreements, providing no evidence of a "race to the bottom". In fact, many export activities help to lift people out of poverty and can be seen as contributing to a "race to the top". Compliance problems are often found in non-formal sectors.

Sixthly, does trade liberalization contribute to increased diversification? Mr Salazar-Xirinachs said that trade liberalization is typically followed by an increase in export diversification but this effect is stronger in middle-income countries than in low-income countries. This means that wealthier economies with higher capabilities are able to benefit more. Finally, does trade liberalization contribute to creating more and better jobs for women? He answered that trade expansion often creates jobs for women in labour-intensive export-oriented industries but work conditions have often been poor. Trade expansion creates jobs for women but does not necessarily reduce gender gaps. The question is how to target trade adjustment for better labour conditions. The investment climate is very important in this regard.

Joseph K. Ingram, former president of the North-South Institute, addressed the question of whether trade creates public goods or whether it causes a race to the bottom. The increasing frequency of social considerations and social dimensions in free trade agreements (FTAs) is a positive sign. In citing Keynes for advocating the nationalization of certain sector and financial services, he said that a balance between globalization and regionalization should be found.

Mr Ingram said that nowadays the trading system is more open than ever before. However, the increasing calls for "de-globalization" and for more production at the local level may lead to an increase in quotas and tariffs. The failure of the Doha Round has led to a spaghetti bowl of FTAs and regional trade agreements. Thus, a new focus on quality of life rather than a sole focus on productivity is required.

Mr Ingram asked how prosperous and sustainable societies can be formed. He said that many researchers have showed that inequality is widening. It is widely acknowledged that the "trickle" of trade is largely flowing up to the rich and the super-rich instead of flowing down to labour. This is a danger for stability and social cohesion. Trade is neither the hero nor the villain. It is the institutional and policy architecture that requires a redesign. This includes minimum wages, royalties on national resources and minimum environmental standards. Failure to design such an architecture will cause a rise in anti-capitalism and anti-immigration and will therefore create more and more tensions in society overall.

The demographic changes taking place are a real challenge for politicians, especially in Europe, said Mr Ingram. It is time to focus on other priorities for economic progress beyond income (GDP), such as genuine progress indicators which include social and environmental costs. Economic, social and cultural rights should be considered by governments when signing FTAs. Today's youth is living in an era of unfulfilled expectations due to exponentially rising communication technologies while at the same time technology is replacing jobs and  creating a jobless or working poor youth. He said that the main question for the future is how to meet those expectations. Education and the type of education provided are essential for overcoming the widening gap.

Nick Ashton-Hart from the Internet & Digital Ecosystem Alliance (IDEA) said that technology has made services tradable and emphasized the opportunities that information and communication technology (ICT) can provide for future growth. As services are an essential part of the economy nowadays, ICT tools that have globalized trade should also be used to meet the challenges we are currently facing. ICT removes distance with hardly any marginal cost.

Mr Ashton-Hart said that ICT should be used to develop skills in the labour force across the world, especially in emerging economies. ICT can create jobs anywhere by putting people into jobs around the globe without moving them from one country to another. While countries complain that they have too few knowledge workers, why not use technology to enable knowledge workers from around the world to work. We have to accept that the current pace of change will not slow down. In fact, it will accelerate. The Internet is the first technology that has been widely applied in the international trading system. The next technology with the same magnitude will be graphene. The current trading system faces the challenge of needing to demonstrate how globalization can serve humanity. If it fails to meet this challenge, we may repeat some of the worst mistakes from recent years. The world needs cooperation to prevent this. 

Jean-Pierre Lehmann, founder of The Evian Group, said that while the demographic change in emerging economies is impressive, the bulk of young people are neither employed nor educated. The question is, therefore, what to do with them since they have a lot of unmet expectations. This is a huge problem that has led to the current calls for "de-globalization". At the same time, technological innovation is immense. However, a lack of education is the big issue. Thus, it is necessary to maintain a labour-intensive industry as it provides jobs for uneducated people. It is impossible to create an economy solely based on a services sector because there needs to be sufficient employment for young people. As the world tries to make labour conditions as humane as possible, governments and corporations also need to focus on the development agenda and the importance of the young, who need to be educated. For this, there is a need for technology to boost this development.

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Working session No. 31: Can trade benefit all?

The panellists focused on the impact of trade on employment. They said that for some, trade is considered to be a source of unemployment. For others, it is deemed to create jobs. Also, some consider that it has no effect on employment.

Marcelo Olarreaga from the Université de Genève referred to the theory of competitive advantage to explain the ambiguous impact of trade on employment. She said that the impact on employment depends on the correlation between the degree of labour market frictions and the degree of global comparative advantage that exists in each country. This means that trade liberalization leads to more unemployment in the countries where comparative advantage lies in sectors with a high degree of frictions in the labour market. On the other hand, it leads to less unemployment in countries where comparative advantage is seen in areas with a low degree of labour market frictions.

Alfredo Calcagno from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) said that the participation of developing countries in international production networks or value chains could increase employment and income, and help them develop the skills and capabilities required for more technologically sophisticated operations. Such networks allow companies from developing countries to specialize in production segments instead of having to manage an entire vertical production chain. However, for developing countries to benefit from inclusion in global value chains, openness to trade and investment cannot be the justification for total deregulation for enterprises in developed countries. Developing countries should seriously weigh up the costs and benefits associated with giving up their room for manoeuvre or flexibility. Another option for developing countries would be to balance their growth strategies with more emphasis on domestic and regional demand.

Marion Jansen from the International Trade Centre said that trade can affect all aspects of life, including finding a job, job security, distribution of income, the quality of the working environment, the possibility of emigration and the ability to influence decisions. Based on a report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Bank, the WTO and the G-20 released in 2000, she said that trade contributes to the efficiency of production, notably through specialization, the exploitation of economies of scale, transfer of technology and increased competition. However, potential negative consequences can be seen. Thus, the transfer of technology could lead to a loss of jobs as technologies gradually replace labour. The increased competition, in turn, would lead to more pressure on employment, making uncompetitive jobs disappear. Specialization would create an increased vulnerability due to high dependence on outside sources to meet needs not covered by domestic production.

Ms Jansen added that openness to trade and capital markets could lead to growing inequalities. The economy adjusts because of reforms in trade or because of changes in the field of competition. She highlighted the fact that increased competition would lead to the downsizing of labour in the formal sector but increased exports would create more jobs. She also pointed out that neoclassical economic theory claims that because of the strong competition due to liberalization, we are witnessing the decline of gender discrimination in the labour market. Discrimination would be seen as inefficient by businesses and governments. She ended by giving her views on what can be done to ensure that trade can benefit everyone. She said that it is vital to facilitate integration into global markets as this would not only help companies and workers develop their skills but would also reduce the fixed costs incurred by small and medium-sized enterprises in their activities.

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Working session No. 32: Trade and jobs – Some myths and some facts

The debate was moderated by Shawn Donnan, World Trade Editor at the Financial Times, who introduced the topic of "trade and jobs". He acknowledged that there is much disagreement about whether trade has a positive or negative effect on employment, with a range of evidence and academic studies in support of both sides. He also defined the objective of the debate: to provide an overview of the evidence and sort out the myths from the facts.

The first panellist, Marc Bachetta from the WTO, went through evidence from the PEW Research Center's Global Attitudes Survey, which gathers evidence from 44 countries. He highlighted that trade is generally seen in a positive light by the surveyed populations although fewer people believe that trade is responsible for job creation or higher wages. However, a number of large industrialized countries (France, Italy, Japan and the United States) were identified as displaying much stronger scepticism regarding the possible benefits of trade. There was also a discrepancy in the responses of more and less educated people, with the latter much less likely to believe that trade can increase employment. Lastly, Mr Bachetta presented evidence that trade contributes to the increase in the relative demand for skilled labour, which suggests that increased trade must be accompanied by the suitable "skills policies" at the domestic level. Especially in the case of developed countries, it is important to "skill up" in order to capture a higher share of value added in global value chains. The speaker concluded by drawing attention to the joint research programme between the WTO and the International Labour Organization (ILO) that seeks to address these issues.

John Neuffer from the Information Technology Industry Council proceeded to discuss the information and communication technology (ICT) sector, highlighting that trade is essential for US tech firms. On the demand side, he stressed that 95 per cent of consumers of technology products are not in the United States. On the supply side, he reminded the audience that the tech sector needs trade in order to build their products. He claimed that the "infant industry" argument is irrelevant to the tech sector because of rapid innovations and interdependency. In this context, governments cannot be expected to "pick winners". Forced localization policies, local content requirements, compulsory domestic testing and certification of products were all identified as being particularly worrisome. In order to adequately respond to these challenges, the speaker urged governments to acknowledge the benefits of imports to consumers and to create the right policies for this new environment. This includes regulatory coherence, targeted education and further integration into the digital economy. He concluded by drawing attention to the advantages that technological development and trade could bring to small entrepreneurs around the world.

Przemyslaw Kowalski from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) elaborated on the debate by reminding the audience that trade both creates and destroys jobs. Although there are gains in the aggregate, localized effects may be positive or negative. Generating public support for trade, therefore, requires policy-makers to make the labour force aware of the aggregate benefits and help it to adjust. The speaker also discussed increasingly sophisticated patterns of global trade and global value chains. He observed that countries now tend to specialize in tasks rather than products, meaning that jobs in any domestic setting depend on foreign inputs. The production process is therefore fragmented and there is more intimate connection between trade and technology, which makes it hard to disentangle the two when discussing jobs.

Roland Schneider from the Trade Union Advisory Committee to the OECD complained that OECD publications produce messages about trade that are far too simplistic. He noted that public scepticism towards trade and globalization is far too widespread to be dismissed, and regretted the limited efforts by governments and think-tanks to address the fact that trade can destroy jobs. He called for an end to "low-cost" approaches that relocate jobs overseas and advocated "social upgrading" to ensure that multinational enterprises are not taking unfair advantage of relatively unprotected workers in countries with fewer regulations. He concluded with a provocative question on the United States: having been used as an example of the success of flexible labour markets, why is there such doubt amongst the American working public regarding the benefits of trade liberalization?

Carmel Cahill from the OECD concluded the debate by remarking on the dissonance that accompanies all discussions on this issue. She sought to address the question of why people are confused about the effects of trade on employment. She suggested that trade is often used as a scapegoat because it is a visible part of an evolving global economy. It increases competition between people that may be different from each other, culturally, physically or otherwise. Although its benefits are long term and relatively diffuse, its impact is often negative and violent in the short term. She also remarked that unemployment and social upheaval actually have their origins in technological change, and not in higher levels of international trade. She concluded by suggesting that trade liberalization should not be treated as a panacea, and should be accompanied by institutional upgrading, good governance, education, etc. She called for a more holistic approach to trade policy, which includes the dissemination of information, better communication and more education regarding the relevant issues.

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Workshop No. 15: Global value chains: What economic footprint in sourcing countries?

Nguyen Trung Thanh, Ambassador of Viet Nam to the United Nations and the WTO, provided an overview of Vietnamese economic development. He attributed it to a demographic dividend, pro-business macroeconomic policies, integration within the region and the rest of the world, and socio-political stability. He said that opportunities present in Viet Nam have been the key drivers of development. They range from firm legal institutions to the abundance of natural resources. The main challenges relate to infrastructure and its ability to keep up with the fast pace of growth and to deal with economic volatility.

Christian Henn from the Economic Research and Statistics Division of the WTO said that integration into global value chains (GVCs) has led to poverty reduction and greater global equality although domestic inequality has increased. The main challenges for integration are geographical proximity and the need for a high quality of production and skilled labour. Initial integration can be achieved through process, product and functional upgrading. The latter is the most challenging. Integration into GVCs is of greater benefit than building entirely domestic supply chains. The latter may lead to rapid industrialization but there is a risk of quickly losing advantage to other countries.

Joerg Hofstetter, Professor at the University of St Gallen, said that supply chains have become really long. This is primarily because of concentrating on core competencies. There is a need to replace supply chain "hopping" by supply chain management. Companies can improve their social performance by more audits and greater transparency but the latter makes it difficult to negotiate trade deals. Options for increasing sustainability in value chains include procuring certified material, influencing the regulators and joining voluntary sustainability initiatives.

Martina Lodrant from the European Commission said that when joining GVCs, it is important to specialize in a particular task or activity. For low-income countries, it is better to join at a lower level. Location and the ability to adapt policies are vital requirements for being a part of a GVC. While forging these GVCs, emphasis should be placed on the rule of law, intellectual property rights and labour market competition policy. There should also be a focus on Africa and other regions that are lagging behind. A comprehensive approach is needed for tackling trade and investment barriers. Sustainable development is also needed. She said that the European Union is the most open market for developing countries as it has in place a General System of Preferences (GSP) as well as GSP+.

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Workshop No. 16: Inclusive trading relationships, linking smallholders to modern markets: how to build bridges and create a win-win?

The session focused on the challenges, opportunities and motivation for inclusive business practices for small businesses, big businesses and small-scale suppliers. The panel said that inclusive business is a strategy that integrates smallholder farmers into the market by reducing the bottlenecks in the agricultural value chain, helping these farmers to connect to new markets and making trade work for development.

The panel described the “Link Methodology” model, which provides tools to improve access to farm commodities in a socially responsible manner. The session referred to a collaborative project between a multinational company (Unilever) and a non-governmental organization (Oxfam) aimed at linking smallholder farmers into the agro business supply chain, with a view to changing the procurement culture of the organisation. The panel also described the lessons learned from a project involving a small-scale social entrepreneur.

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Working session No. 33: Trade and Africa: Achieving Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa

Jacques Berthelot from Solidarité said that Sub-Saharan Africa depends on food imports. Thus, for its food security, Africa should start relying on its own products. He was critical of the Economic Partnership Agreements imposed on Africa by the European Union.

Aileen Kwa from the South Centre said that food security in Sub-Saharan Africa is linked with the liberalization of trade and the internal support of governments.

Jane Nalunga from the Southern and Eastern Africa Trade Information and Negotiations Institute in Uganda said that there should be coherence between governments on commercial, agricultural, industrial and infrastructure policies. She said that Economic Partnership Agreements have a direct impact on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, Africa should produce its own food.

Mamadou Cissoko from the Réseau des Organisations Paysannes et des Producteurs Agricoles d'Afrique de l'Ouest said that food security in Sub-Saharan Africa is a worrying issue. To achieve food sovereignty, he said that the development discussions within the Doha Development Agenda should focus on this region. At the same time, food security matters should be a priority in terms of agricultural policy, and Economic Partnership Agreements are in conflict with this. He stressed that Sub-Saharan Africa should produce and consume its own food.

Yash Tandon, former Executive Director of the South Centre, stressed that food security for Sub-Saharan Africa is a political and social concern. He said that African countries should have their own organization to deal with trade and food security issues.

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Working session No. 34: Electronic Single Window (eSW) in Rwanda – an effective tool for bringing down the costs of trade for the government, private sector and consumers

Frank Matsaert from TradeMark East Africa said that the gains from trade must be felt by everyone and that all policies and interventions must be geared towards achieving that goal. TradeMark East Africa increases trade in East Africa by increasing market access, enhancing the trade environment and improving business competitiveness through promoting regional value chains.

Rwanda is a landlocked country whose exports and imports mainly transit through another landlocked country, Uganda. Before the establishment of the Electronic Single Window (eSW), trade facilitation issues included port clearances in Mombasa, transit clearances in mainland Kenya, border clearances at the Kenya-Uganda border, transit clearances in mainland Uganda and border clearances at the Rwanda-Uganda borders. By 2008, Rwanda had the highest trade costs in East Africa. Transit and border procedures accounted for the highest share of those costs.

In 2008, Rwanda introduced the eSW, with 100 per cent e-processing of all customs transactions. The panel said that this makes it the leader in this area in the entire Sub-Saharan Africa. The eSW links various actors in trade (airlines, shippers, government ministries, importers, exporters, bonded warehouses, exporters and clearing agents) into one operational centre. It has reduced waiting time at customs centres from two days, ten hours and nine minutes in 2009-10 to two hours in 2013-14. There have also been gains for customs agents. The number of declaration documents processed per day has increased from eight to 100 while the associated costs have declined from US$ 25 to US$ 4 per document.

The panel said that the eSW has resulted in savings of US$ 2.04 million per annum for business. It has resulted in a paradigm shift in the operations of Rwanda customs from customs administrators to trade facilitators. It has also led to improved tax compliance, increased revenue collection, better coordination of government agencies with the private sector, better delivery of services and increased productivity.

Currently, Rwanda's eSW is the only example in the entire region. The panel said that the challenge is to get other customs union members of the East African Community on board. Coordinating cooperation between all government agencies and their changing roles remains a challenge. Access to Internet services remains low, hampering instant electronic messaging. Physical infrastructure challenges also remain.

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Working session No. 35: Farmers’ access to trade

The panel said that the world population is rising and therefore so is the need for greater agricultural production. This has implications for food security, where trade can play a positive role.

In international trade, farmers are faced with a number of challenges which must be addressed so that they can improve their access to markets and make profits, said the panel. The challenges commonly faced relate to the lack of infrastructure, productivity issues, lack of management skills, insufficient knowledge of the implication of trade policies, lack of organization, absence of risk management tools, the absence of linkages to markets and the need for clear national systems to make sure that trade flows as easily as possible. The panel highlighted the role of international organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the WTO, in helping to meet the challenges faced by farmers.

The panellists noted the positive changes that the Uruguay Round brought to trade in agriculture and highlighted the importance of the multilateral trading system in helping countries improve market access. They said that trade rules were only a part of the equation for improving market access and that they should be implemented in combination with other public policy tools aimed at increasing productivity and guaranteeing sustainability.

The panellists called for a successful conclusion of the Doha Development Agenda. Some participants in the session noted the need for the agriculture negotiations to conclude in order for their farmers to benefit from more open trade and a less distorted market. The discussion also touched on the emergence of new trade issues, such as environmental standards, food safety standards and animal welfare standards, which could potentially restrict market access and which must be carefully considered in order to minimize any negative effect on trade.

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Working session No. 36: Towards a more inclusive trade system – Trade and Development Cooperation between Portuguese Speaking Countries: capacity-building for Trade Facilitation

The panel said that trade facilitation is very important for the community of Portuguese-speaking countries. Trade facilitation is important in particular for supporting development and combating customs fraud. Technical assistance and capacity building are the main elements for supporting the implementation of trade facilitation by developing and least-developed countries. The provision of this assistance is guaranteed in Section II of the WTO's Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA).

The Portuguese-speaking economies have strong business and trading links due to their common language and culture, said the panel. These countries can benefit greatly from trade facilitation. It can have a particular impact in Africa, cutting half of the customs procedures. Angola has a great interest in trade facilitation. It has introduced several customs reforms to improve procedures. The implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement will require more reforms in several countries.

The panel said that six Portuguese-speaking countries are beneficiaries of the Enhanced Integrated Framework (EIF) of the Aid for Trade initiative. The activities of the EIF include technical assistance for trade facilitation. Cooperation between stakeholders, including the private sector, is key to dealing with problems relating to the implementation of trade facilitation.

Angola is cooperating with the Portuguese-speaking community and international organizations in a number of ways to ensure implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement, said the panel. Angola is focusing on two main objectives: the use of all instruments set up by the WTO and the World Customs Organization (WCO) and the creation of new web tools. For example, it is creating a web portal translated into Portuguese to help other countries understand what is needed. It is also organizing the exchange of experiences through training seminars and workshops for government officials.

The panel said that Mozambique's single window implementation is complete and fully up and running. Portugal has the most developed system. Bilateral cooperation between Angola and Portugal on technical assistance includes the training of customs officials, sending them to WCO meetings and sending Angolan technical officials to Portugal to gain experience and share knowledge. Portugal's customs is cooperating with the eight Portuguese-speaking countries by organizing training seminars and workshops in various areas of customs administration. An integrated programme is focusing on the provision of technical assistance, the promotion of Portuguese in the WCO, support for interpretation in meetings, and the creation of a web portal with diverse information for customs officials in the Portuguese-speaking community.

A programme of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is helping to strengthen knowledge and skills through innovative approaches. Angola is cooperating with UNCTAD and the European Union on a project related to port management involving the training of 31 officials.

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Working session No. 37: Trade for a better market for consumers

The session discussed the role of the agri-food trade in relation to consumers’ needs and expectations. The speakers included Liz Murphy from the International Meat Trade Association, Sylvain Naulin from the Comité Européen des Entreprises Vin, Tom Heilandt from Codex Alimentarius and Monique Goyens from the European Consumer Organisation. The session was moderated by Christian Häberli from the World Trade Institute.

The session started with a presentation by the European Committee for the Agricultural and Agri-Food Trade (CELCAA). This included a discussion of the meat market, the European Union's approach to science, how science and agriculture are related and the scope of EU legislation in this matter.

The panel discussed the convergence of international standards - in the field of food safety, animal welfare and protection of the environment - and the interests of consumers. Panellists debated how unharmonized standards create barriers to trade. They highlighted the role of international standards in promoting food safety alongside international trade and discussed the need for guidelines that are science-based and that take into account risk analysis.

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Workshop No. 17: How Trade-obstacles and protectionism impacts value-generation for countries/societies – Viewpoints by the Sporting Goods Industry, the industry sector leading in true globalization

Robert De Kock, Secretary General of the World Federation of the Sporting Goods Industry (WFSGI), provided a general introduction to the sporting goods industry. He said that the World Cup is one of the most watched sporting events in the world and that soccer goes to the heart of people across continents, cultures and genders. However, it is difficult to get exact numbers on the economics of sport. Sporting goods get public attention due to the popularity of sports. Without footwear, balls and accessories, there are no sports. The industry has always been global.

Mr De Kock said that the branding of sports products is an important way of attracting consumers. Many of the countries in Asia from which goods are sourced have seen an increase in social wealth thanks to the sporting goods industry. It is very important to make sure that the wealth spreads across society and contributes to its development. Therefore, global development and free trade is a must for the sporting goods industry even if it is subjected to high tariffs.

Jeff Whalen from Nike said that the sporting goods industry is responsible for millions of jobs globally, from manufacturing to product design, retail and marketing. However, very few of the products are sold in the countries of production. In the United States and the European Union, there are high customs duties - as high as 32 per cent in the United States for apparel, which accounts for 17 per cent of customs claims.

Elizabeth Akkerman, Representative of Germany to the WTO, said that there is a very important link between manufacturing sporting goods and development. Sport is a big business that helps to reduce poverty and boost tourism (through world cups etc.), and it affects many other industries. Preferential rules of origin, which should be clear and simple, could contribute to poverty reduction in least-developed countries. She said that it is very important for the sporting goods industry to abide by corporate social responsibility guidelines.

Edwin Vermulst from the WFSGI said that the sporting goods industry is globalized even if it is not the first example that people think of when discussing the globalization of goods. The origin of goods is determined at the factory gates but this does not take into account what happens afterwards.

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Workshop No. 18: Harnessing trade preference programs to stimulate broad-based prosperity in Africa

The panel said that taking advantage of trade preference programmes is dependent on having a conducive environment. Most of the current trade preference regimes were designed about four decades ago. For some developing countries, agriculture remains the best sector to take advantage of preferences because the vast majority of the population is still employed in that sector. Trade preferences can sometimes mean a mismatch between products and demand, and uncertainty about how long a particular scheme may last. People in the beneficiary country are sometimes unaware of the obstacles that they have to overcome to effectively enter markets.

Trade facilitation could be an opportunity for Africa in terms of linking small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to global value chains, said the panel. The reduction of trade costs expected with the implementation of the Trade Facilitation Agreement is important for SMEs.

According to the latest World Investment Report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), foreign direct investment (FDI) flows to Africa have increased by 4 per cent, mainly directed at infrastructure. Intra-Africa FDI flows are also important, mainly originating from countries such as South Africa, Kenya and Nigeria.

The panel said that if countries want to benefit from trade and investment flows, they have to balance the need for domestic policy space with creating a conducive environment. They should consider transparency, stability and the rule of law as critical conditions. This means having a coherent economic system in place.

The panel discussed how trade preferences could be leveraged to create productive employment and strong economic growth. It said that trade preferences have allowed some countries which did not possess any particular advantage in a certain sector to attract investment and boost employment. An example is Lesotho and the garment industry. The question is whether the majority of these jobs for local people are "decent" and safe jobs. Although these jobs are welcome, they need to be drivers of development. They should comply with core labour standards of the International Labour Organization (ILO) and be regulated by national laws.

The 'Better Work Programme' of the ILO looks at how jobs could be safe and decent without hampering competitiveness, said the panel. The concept of "just" jobs should not be seen as being in conflict with prosperity and growth. There is not necessarily a trade-off between decent jobs and growth. Good jobs should lead to an increase in spending power which should bring about a market for the goods that are produced by the companies paying the decent salaries. Therefore, everyone should benefit.

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Working session No. 38: CANCELLED

 

Working session No. 39: South-South Trade and Sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and Way Forward

The Commonwealth Secretariat provided an overview of South-South trade and Sub-Saharan Africa trade. It pointed to the growth in South-South trade, which increased by 17 per cent between 2000 and 2012, and highlighted the trend of increasing exports from Sub-Saharan Africa to the developed world.

The Secretariat underlined the high level of engagement of developing countries in trade, which has outgrown the engagement of many developed countries. However, it noted that the increase in exports does not necessarily mean improved integration in global value chains.

Richard Kozul Wright from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) underlined that China is the major partner. He singled out industrialization as the main condition for increased trade and economic growth, followed by specialization and diversification. He also identified other factors that contribute to economic growth, such as the involvement of large firms, investment and getting the policies right. He argued that regional trade agreements are reducing the policy space for developing countries to undergo the necessary structural transformation as South-South trade focuses on intermediate goods while final products are being traded between South and North.

François-Xavier Ngarambe, Ambassador of Rwanda to the WTO, underlined the need for diversification and to move away from extractive industry trade. He stressed the importance of building capacity and competitiveness and highlighted research and development as being key. He also stressed the need to ensure peace and security and to fight corruption.

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Working session No. 40: Expanding Trade Opportunities for Francophone African States through Trade Facilitation (in light of the Bali Agreement)

The discussion began by the panel defining trade facilitation as the administrative procedures needed to trade across borders and to ensure the movement of goods in commercial transactions. Borders are not just a territorial delimitation of statehood but are also a means of activating the flow of commercial goods. Trade facilitation is particularly important now due to the high level of complex global value chains. Many goods nowadays consist of various components which involve the crossing of many borders. Trade facilitation issues have resulted in colossal losses for the trade of French-speaking African countries.

Infrastructure, logistics and financing are all necessary for trade facilitation, said the panel. A strong infrastructure in particular is needed to fully implement the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA). Trade facilitation would speed up the process of infrastructure development. Assistance from partners is needed to implement the TFA, improve infrastructure and diversify the economy. The development of infrastructure could be phased in over time.

The panel agreed that there are implementation costs but these are offset by future gains. East Africa is a sub-region that has improved considerably in recent years in relation to customs modernization, tax generation, general reforms and an improved transportation system. The panel said that the state is making a strong commitment but input from the private sector is equally important.

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Working session No. 41: The new model of South-South cooperation: how can China-Africa economic relations contribute to both sides?

The panellists looked at the evolving China-Africa relationship in a largely favourable way, pointing to the growth of trade, investment, aid and diplomatic ties. Nicolas Imboden from International trade, Development, Economic governance and Advisory Services (IDEAS Centre) said that China has broken the West's monopoly on supplying goods and investment to Africa, thus improving Africa's bargaining power. The conditionality-free nature of Chinese aid and investment was seen as positive, helping Africans make their own decisions although it was acknowledged that social and environmental risks could sometimes go ignored.

Some common criticisms of China's current involvement in Africa, such as the accusation that it is only about resources, were downplayed by the panel. Yonov Frederick Agah, Deputy Director-General of the WTO, and Lu Xiankun from the Permanent Mission of China to the WTO noted that much investment – especially in recent years – was targeted at manufacturing and other sectors, and not just mining. They pointed out that aid was being provided for infrastructure and training. Mr Lu said that 80 per cent of Chinese imports from Africa were petroleum and mineral products but noted that the proportion for the United States was identical and for Europe it was only slightly lower, at 70 per cent. He partly attributed China's refusal to impose governance conditionalities to its own experience of being subject to conditions by foreign investors.

Led by Peter Draper from the South African Institute for International Affairs, the participants discussed the potential for Africa to attract labour-intensive manufacturing jobs from China as Asian countries move up the value chain and reorient their economies towards domestic rather than export markets. Some notes of caution were sounded that its growing young labour force could prove to be a double-edged sword in the absence of proper skills training.

Mr Lu emphasized that there was scope for South-South cooperation to co-exist harmoniously alongside traditional North-South cooperation – and indeed that cooperation across both modes would help maximize the benefits of each approach.

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Working session No. 42: Implications for jobs, consumers, and the environment and Africa of including investment in the post-Bali Roadmap

The session looked at the recent success of multinational companies in suing governments for breaking investment treaties, and how this could constrain governments from pursuing legitimate policy objectives, including on health and the environment.

Elisabeth Tuerk from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) said that more than half of foreign direct investment (FDI) flows last year were directed to developing countries. She said FDI is seen as a creator of jobs and a source of sustainable development. However, also last year, some 56 cases of investment dispute settlement cases were filed, which is the second-largest number in history. More governments are now concerned that the opaque dispute settlement process in investment claims and the large arbitral awards are constraining governments from pursuing legitimate policy objectives.

Sanya Reid Smith from Third World Network pointed to a number of recent cases involving large claims against Russia, Canada, Mexico and Ecuador. Yorgos Altintzis from the International Trade Union Confederation said that the international labour movement opposes investment treaties because of their impact on the sovereignty of nations. Natacha Cingotti from Friends of the Earth Europe said that there is strong opposition to investment-protection provisions in free trade agreements (FTAs) such as the recent Canada-European Union FTA and the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) being negotiated by the European Union and the United States.

Wamkele Keabetswe Mene from the South African Permanent Mission to the WTO said that South Africa has decided to stop entering into investment treaties and to no longer renew existing ones. This is because these treaties are inconsistent with international and South African laws. The country is now enacting a new investment law that provides a better balance of rights and obligations for investors and the government. He said that the new policy has not deterred investments as South Africa remains the largest FDI recipient in Sub-Saharan Africa.

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Working session No. 43: EIF: A partnership making trade work for LDCs

The session showcased how the Enhanced Integrated Framework (EIF) helps least-developed countries (LDCs) address supply-side constraints. After a short presentation of the EIF, donors, LDC government representatives, implementing entities and LDC trade practitioners shared their experience on the ground in building capacity and bringing local projects to life.

Ursula Hoenich, representing the European Union, shared the EU experience in Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR) as EIF coordinator. Three factors had contributed to the success of the project: first, the direct involvement of the minister in the design and implementation of the programme; secondly, high-level political support and the integration of the programme into the national trade agenda; and thirdly, the timely support of donors. She stressed the importance of good donor and inter-ministerial coordination, a point made by several other panellists.

Léonard Ntibagirirwa, EIF National Coordinator for Burundi, and Sengphanomchone Inthasane from the Ministry of Industry and Commerce in Lao PDR explained how they have leveraged donor coordination and mobilized aid in order to implement the projects they had identified. In Burundi, the EIF has helped the development of the coffee sector through participation in international fairs and competitions, training of coffee-graders, and support for sale and certification. In Lao PDR, the EIF has supported the creation of a training garment centre to improve skills and quality.

The last part of the session was dedicated to the presentation of projects regarding honey and beekeeping in Zambia and Yemen. The projects aimed at improving honey production, market access, quality and packaging through training, the introduction of new equipment and methods, better marketing and outreach, and the creation of new institutions such as cooperatives. Both projects have helped build rural households' ability to trade and export and contributed to the empowerment of women.

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Workshop No. 19: Loss of competitiveness in a sector does not mean less jobs. Trade related jobs mobility in the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. An application in the city of Blumenau.

Germano Gehrke, a lecturer in international trade at the University of Blumenau, presented the case of Hering, a major Brazilian textile company in the city of Blumenau, in the southern Brazilian state of Santa Catarina, and the transformation of its operations since the 1970s.

Mr Gehrke said that in 1970, Blumenau was the first textile cluster in Latin America, and Hering was one of the major actors in the industry, producing and exporting basic garments. In the 1980s, Hering became a global mass market supplier. From the end of the 1980s, some of its operations were conducted, including the construction of plants, outside Brazil (in the United States, Germany and Spain), in particular involving the sale of basic garments, bed linen and towels.

However, by the end of the 1990s it had become clear that Brazil had lost its competitiveness in the textile sector, said Mr Gehrke. This loss of competitiveness led to the establishment by the Santa Catarina state of a "pro-employment" programme. This aimed to encourage business in the areas of innovation and trade and allowed enterprises to pay a reduced value-added tax and to get a credit for this tax in exchange for a commitment to create jobs. The programme has attracted to the region a number of companies from other Brazilian states and has transformed Hering into a major textile operator. In 2013, 3.5 per cent of the jobs for the whole of Santa Catarina were created by this programme.

Mr Gehrke said that the contribution of government authorities at the municipal level - the city of Blumenau – focused on providing adequate training for the population to work in the businesses supported by the pro-employment programme. Special education programmes were created. These included a three-year technical training course on informatics and software and a three-year course on international trade in the University of Blumenau. While continuing to operate as a textile producer - branded shops were opened in Brazil and other MERCOSUR countries - Hering has continued to expand as a major textiles operator, with a team of 13 staff working on exports and 38 on imports.

Mr Gehrke concluded that this transformation had only been possible because all involved acted together. This included the government authorities at state and municipal level and the business itself. In isolation, these initiatives would not have been successful. He also noted that only businesses that are unable to change are losers in the transformation that the world is undergoing.

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Working session No. 44: Services Trade – Why it matters to Africans?

The panel discussed how services exports could form an important source of growth for least-developed countries (LDCs), a notion that previously seemed implausible to analysts.

LDC services exports have increased by many times, said the panel. Despite showing consistent growth, however, LDCs' share in world exports of commercial services remains low. Their potential could be realized by integrating LDCs into services value chains, reforming the services regulatory policy, developing supply-side capacity and operationalizing the LDC services waiver.

The panel said that the role of services in economic growth is often under-appreciated. Services exports were previously thought to comprise only 20 per cent of global trade but data on trade in value-added terms places this figure at 50 per cent. The value-added data captures the role of services as inputs into other sectors of the economy, quantifying its embodiment in final products.

Services are also the largest recipient of foreign direct investment (FDI), said the panel, and are the driving force behind GDP growth for countries at all levels of development. The panel provided examples where countries were using services exports as a source of growth. These included education services in Ghana and Uganda, telecom services in Bangladesh, and business process outsourcing (BPO) in Palestine. The panel said that the example of Palestine is particularly impressive since it exemplifies how even countries with challenging physical borders could realize growth using services exports.

The panel concluded that services were of great importance to LDCs and that there should be a renewed focus by these countries on becoming efficient importers and exporters of services.

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Working session No. 45: Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS): Building Equity in and Access to Sustainable Markets

The panel said that there are many challenges facing private and voluntary sustainability standards (VSSs). These standards are of key importance for market entry. VSSs emerged in relation to food safety concerns and consumer awareness. There are often indirect references to VSSs in bilateral and plurilateral trade agreements.

VSSs are important for trade between developing countries, said the panel, and can be used for advancing sustainable production. There are benefits at farm (plant) level and at the national level. However, there are concerns regarding VSSs. For example, are they a threat to market access and can they be used as protectionist tools? The panel pointed out that they may be set up by external, non-state actors who have no idea about what is happening at a grassroots level within a country. The standards are not designed for a particular country and may be too stringent for producers. They can also represent a key challenge for small-scale producers.

The panel said that many VSSs are unlikely to create sufficient impact on their own and to leverage transformational change. Research shows that they cannot achieve economic benefits and poverty reduction on their own. However, they could make a contribution towards development, increasing jobs and improving livelihoods by acting as new "power tools" in international trade that form a "meta-governance" system.

There has been a growth in the number of VSSs over the years, said the panel, but this does not translate necessarily into sales in conventional markets. In the area of coffee, there has been a 40 per cent growth in the number or certifications but only 12 per cent of this certified coffee is actually sold in the certified markets. Economically endowed economies continue to dominate the sustainable distribution of supply and this is a cause for concern. Poorer economies and least-developed countries (LDCs) need to be able to better participate in these initiatives.

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Working session No. 46: Innovation, IP and informal sectors in Africa’s development

The session focused on the role of intellectual property (IP) rights as a means of supporting innovation in Africa. Presentations were made on ongoing IP and innovative technology projects in Africa.

Two complimentary projects on the role of innovation in the informal economy and patents were presented by Tobias Schönwetter from the University of Cape Town and Alessia Volpe from the European Patent Office. The assumption that Africa is not innovative because the number of patents is low does not hold true, said the speakers, because most innovation is taking place in the informal sector and there is a lack of patent offices for formal registration.

Mr Schönwetter said: "we [Africans] prefer no IP policy than an inadequate IP policy that does not support innovation". Ms Volpe said that innovative activity in climate change mitigation technologies (CCMT) in Africa accounts for 59 per cent of the global share and that the region has a huge potential in renewable energy development projects. For this reason, patents are crucial.

Dick Kawooya from the Open African Innovation Research and Training (Open AIR) Project, Uganda, said in his presentation that "informal is the new formal" since the informal sector in innovation is the predominant one in Africa and has been expanding since the 1970s. He pointed to the lack of IP tools in the region as a trigger for the Open AIR project, which aims to investigate how IP regimes can be harnessed in Africa to facilitate innovation through collaboration.

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Working session No. 47: Trade and decent work in the globalised economy

The panel discussed the impact of trade on job creation and on the quality of jobs in terms of wages and working conditions. The panellists highlighted the experience of "social dialogue" in the European Union, referring to discussions between organizations representing the two sides of industry (employers and workers). They also referred to the impact of non-compliance with basic labour standards, using the example of industrial accidents such as the Rana Plaza factory collapse in Bangladesh.

The discussion was moderated by Alexander Boyle, President of the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) follow-up Committee on Trade. All the panellists highlighted the positive effect that international trade has had in creating wealth and lifting people out of poverty, especially in developing countries.

Azita Berar from the International Labour Organization (ILO) noted that, despite these positive effects, unemployment, under-employment and the informal economy continue to be a problem. In previous years, the ILO has worked with the WTO and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to understand the connections between trade and the creation of jobs and job quality. Overall, trade seems to have had mixed results. Often, any negative effects are immediate while positive effects are felt over time. In some cases, trade may lead to income and wage inequality. To a large extent, these effects depend on domestic policies, which are necessary to ensure that trade growth has a positive impact on trade creation and on the quality of jobs. But more research is needed.

Ms Berar said that there is no evidence that compliance with labour standards negatively affects productivity and competitiveness. Indeed, the situation is often the opposite, as better labour standards are often associated with higher productivity. In accordance with the 2008 ILO Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalization, labour rights should not be used as an excuse for protectionist policies but at the same time the violation of labour rights should not be used in order to gain comparative advantage.

Patrick Itschert from the European Trade Unions Confederation said that the labour union movement is convinced that globalization can be a positive factor for progress. At the same time, improving labour standards does not affect competitiveness. Indeed, competitiveness rankings place countries with higher labour standards among the most competitive. Trade agreements should incorporate not only the protection of labour rights but also sustainable development.

Philippe de Buck from the EESC employers' group highlighted the panel's agreement that over time trade can bring benefits to all involved. A firm's first obligation is to comply with all applicable regulations. In addition, employers are becoming gradually more aware of their corporate social responsibility.

Monika Hencsey from the European Commission referred to the European experience in incorporating compliance with labour and environmental standards as a condition for Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) benefits and how those standards have more recently become part of bilateral agreements. Trade agreements offer the possibility of positively affecting labour rights, including through positive cooperation between the parties.

In his conclusion, Mr Boyle highlighted how all panellists had agreed on the positive role played by international trade. At the same time, it is important to ensure that "decent" work is created. Compliance with ILO standards is essential to ensure that benefits from trade are equally distributed.

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Workshop No. 20: Nutrition Labelling Standards – protecting health and informing consumers

Nutrition labelling standards are an important source of information to consumers for their choice of healthy food products, and thus an essential aspect of limiting non-communicable diseases, and in particular obesity. At the same time, labelling requirements may be a burdensome and costly process for the food industries when they need to comply with different labelling requirements in each country. Panellists discussed their experience in finding the right balance between providing adequate information for the health of consumers and avoiding unnecessary barriers to trade.

The moderator, Erik Wijkström from the WTO, laid the grounds for discussions by posing three questions. First, are existing standards a good basis for consumers to make informed choices with regards to health and safety or is there a lack of harmonization? Secondly, governments have the right to regulate health as they see necessary. But nutrition labelling is more complex: there is an element of consumer choice, a lifestyle determinant that is not necessarily only linked to health. How much should governments regulate this area? Thirdly, is nutrition labelling effective? Is it a good means of addressing the risks faced in this area?

Francesco Branca from the World Health Organization (WHO) presented the WHO's work on nutrition labelling. The WHO has been particularly active in this area since 2004, when it started working on its global strategy on diet, physical activity and health.

Clémence Ross introduced the Choices International Foundation, which aims to make healthier options the easy choice for consumers and to encourage industries to be innovative in their nutrition labelling. She underlined the need for a multi-stakeholder approach. While governmental support is necessary to make important reforms in national nutrition labelling requirements based on scientific knowledge, industry efforts are also essential for innovation.

Paul Whitehouse from Unilever commented that society today is obesogenic. He said that Unilever, as a food manufacturer, has a responsibility to make better and healthier products while continuing to offer attractive products. He underlined that a multiplication of standards was not only costly for industries but also confusing for consumers, giving the example of the European Union, where 40 different ways of front-of-pack labelling have been proposed either by governments or private industry.

Tom Heilandt from the Codex Alimentarius Commission gave an overview of its work with regards to nutrition labelling standards, which it has been developing since 1963. With the impetus of the WHO Global Strategy, the Codex determined that food labelling was mandatory and needed to be implemented, in particular, with regards to energy value, protein, carbohydrates, fat, saturated fat, sodium and total sugar.

Anne-Marie Thow from the University of Sydney said that non-communicable diseases are now a significant global health problem, affecting both high-income and low and middle-income countries. She made the case for front-of-pack labelling. Thanks to higher visibility, such labelling schemes increase consumer awareness of nutrition/health as well as their understanding and interpretation of nutrition information. They also improve health-oriented consumption behaviour and encourage the reformulation of less healthy food products.

Speakers generally agreed that there must not be a multiplication of new approaches to nutrition labelling. Industry, governments and other stakeholders need to cooperate to find clearer ways to inform consumers. Nutrition labelling must not be the only way of informing consumers about health risks. Education is also an important aspect of raising awareness. Therefore, nutrition labelling should be seen as part of a wider package of policy measures for promoting human health.

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Working session No. 48: Government Procurement, International Trade Disciplines and Developing Countries

The panel said that transparency is a hallmark of procurement reforms, which have significance for governance across society. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) was cited as an example of a development organization demonstrating the relevance of sound procurement systems as part of good governance. The EBRD and the WTO cooperate in this area.

The panel discussed the potential role and relevance of the Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) for Africa's infrastructure needs and development prospects. The relevance of GPA special and differential treatment (S&D) provisions for developing countries was also discussed.

The panel emphasized the complementary nature of procurement reforms and competition policy. It referred to the extent of ongoing work on the ground in Sub-Saharan Africa both on procurement reforms and competition. The dynamic nature of global procurement markets and the potentially increasing costs of non-participation in the GPA were emphasized.

Harsha Singh, former Deputy Director-General of the WTO, highlighted the ability of procurement reforms aimed at increasing transparency and accountability to "radiate outwards" across society. He also emphasized the dynamic nature of global procurement markets and the increasing costs, in his view, of non-participation in the GPA. Jan Jackholt from the EBRD showcased the usefulness of WTO/EBRD cooperation for the provision of technical assistance in this area.

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